The Religious Founding of America

"...Many of the colonies that in 1776 became the United States of America were settled by men and women of deep religious convictions who in the seventeenth century crossed the Atlantic Ocean to practice their faith freely. That the religious intensity of the original settlers would diminish to some extent over time was perhaps to be expected, but new waves of eighteenth century immigrants brought their own religious fervor across the Atlantic and the nation's first major religious revival in the middle of the eighteenth century injected new vigor into American religion. The result was that a religious people rose in rebellion against Great Britain in 1776, and that most American statesmen, when they began to form new governments at the state and national levels, shared the convictions of most of their constituents that religion was, to quote Alexis de Tocqueville's observation, indispensable to the maintenance of republican institutions."

(from Religion and the Founding of the American Republic

Jesus as an Historical Figure

"Consider the following evidence.

I. Testimony of a Traitor: Josephus

Josephus was a first century historian. In his autobiography, he defended his behavior in the Jewish-Roman War. He surrendered to the Roman general Vespasian during the siege of Jopatata, even though most of his colleagues committed suicide rather than give up.

He decided to join and defend the Romans. He is most known for his ambitious work, The Antiquities, which was a history of the Jewish people up to his time. The Romans employed Josephus to record their history. His works are very easy to find and are well documented.

Josephus was hated by his fellow Jews for his collaboration with the Romans. His work mentions several references to Festus, a Roman governor who also is mentioned in the New Testament.

Josephus' words about Jesus appear in The Antiquities 18.63-64:

"About this time there lived Jesus, a wise man, if indeed one ought to call him a man. For he was one who wrought surprising feats and was a teacher of such people as accept the truth gladly. He won over many Jews and many of the Greeks. He was the Messiah. When Pilate, upon hearing him accused by men of the highest standing amongst us, had condemned him to be crucified, those who had in the first place come to love him did not give up their affection for him. On the third day he appeared to them restored to life, for the prophets of God had prophesied these and countless other marvellous things about him. And the tribe of the Christians, so called after him, has still to this day not disappeared."

While some scholars argue over the content of Josephus' words above, virtually none dismiss it as a clear reference to a historical Jesus that was a martyred leader of the church in Jerusalem and that he established a wide following despite the fact that he was executed under Pilate at the investigation of some of the Jewish leaders.

II. Testimony of a Roman Historian: Tacitus

Tacitus recorded what is probably the most important reference to Jesus outside the New Testament in his Annals:

"Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name ["Christians"] had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty: then upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind."

In A.D. 115 he explicitly states that Nero persecuted the Christians as scapegoats to divert suspicion away from himself for the great fire that devastated Rome in AD 64. This is an important testimony by an unsympathetic witness to the success and spread of Christianity, based on a historical figure -- Jesus -- who was executed under Pontius Pilate. It is also significant that Tacitus reported that an "immense multitude" held so strongly to their beliefs that they were willing to die rather than recant their beliefs.

III. Testimony of an Historian: Thallus

Thallus wrote a history of the eastern Mediterranean world in AD 52. He writes of an eclipse that mirrors the Biblical account of the darkness surrounding the Crucifixion. While in no way proving Divinity, this reference does provide an independent corroboration of the biblical claim.

Julius Africanus discusses Thallus' historical account of the crucifixion:

"This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour fails on the day before the Passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun. And it cannot happen at any other time but in the interval between the first day of the new moon and the last of the old, that is, at their junction: how then should an eclipse be supposed to happen when the moon is almost diametrically opposite the sun? Let that opinion pass however; let it carry the majority with it; and let this portent of the world be deemed an eclipse of the sun, like others a portent only to the eye. Phlegon records that, in the time of Tiberius Caesar, at full moon, there was a full eclipse of the sun from the sixth hour to the ninth--manifestly that one of which we speak."

Thallus notes there was darkness at the time of the crucifixion, and attributes it to an eclipse. Julius explains why an eclipse was an impossible conclusion. The focus here is not on the crucifixion, but is another source that validates the actual, physical, historical person of Jesus Christ.

IV. Testimony of a Roman Governor: Pliny the Younger

Pliny the Younger became the governor of Bithynia in Northwest Turkey. Much of his correspondence with his friend, Emperor Trajan, has been preserved. In book ten of his letters, he specifically refers to Christians he has arrested:

Pliny to the Emperor Trajan:

"It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt. For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance? I have never participated in trials of Christians. I therefore do not know what offenses it is the practice to punish or investigate, and to what extent. And I have been not a little hesitant as to whether there should be any distinction on account of age or no difference between the very young and the more mature; whether pardon is to be granted for repentance, or, if a man has once been a Christian, it does him no good to have ceased to be one; whether the name itself, even without offenses, or only the offenses associated with the name are to be punished.

Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure: I interrogated these as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished. There were others possessed of the same folly; but because they were Roman citizens, I signed an order for them to be transferred to Rome.

Soon accusations spread, as usually happens, because of the proceedings going on, and several incidents occurred. An anonymous document was published containing the names of many persons. Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ--none of which those who are really Christians, it is said, can be forced to do--these I thought should be discharged. Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it, asserting that they had been but had ceased to be, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty-five years. They all worshipped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by oath, not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a trust when called upon to do so. When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food. Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations. Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses. But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.

I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you. For the matter seemed to me to warrant consulting you, especially because of the number involved. For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found. Hence it is easy to imagine what a multitude of people can be reformed if an opportunity for repentance is afforded."

Why is this letter important? It attests to the rapid growth of Christianity among every race and class of people, free and slave, including Roman citizens. It also shows the Christians had high moral standards and were not easily swayed from their beliefs."

http://www.ici.edu/gql/historical.html

Adam, the Flood & the Tower of Babel

Turning just a few pages into the Bible, we
read about the first cities known to man after the
global flood of Noah’s day.

One of Noah’s descendants was a man by
the name of Nimrod, whose kingdom included the
cities of Babel, Erech, Akkad, and Calneh, in the
land of Shinar. Asshur went forth and built
Nineveh, Rehoboth Ir, Calah and Resen in the
land of Assyria.

These first cities lay in a land modern historians
call ancient Mesopotamia, which means “the
land between two rivers.” The two rivers it refers to
are the Tigris and the Euphrates. This land would later
be the staging ground for two of the world’s most
feared Empires: Assyria and Babylon. That
land is what we refer to today as Iraq.
I remember during my college days taking a
class in Western Civilization, and the very first cultures
mentioned in the history book we were assigned,
was that of the ancient Akkadians and
Sumerians who lived in Mesopotamia. This
should come as no surprise, since the city-state
of Akkad, as well as the cities of Sumer, were mentioned
in Genesis 10:10-12, long ago.

One of the most amazing finds uncovered in
Akkad was that of a seal, which possibly shows that
the Akkadians knew of the story of the temptation
of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. George
Smith, of the British Museum, who lived during the
middle 1800's, wrote: “One striking and important
specimen of early type in the British Museum has
two figures, sitting one on each side of a tree, holding
out their hands to the fruit, while at the back of
one (the woman) is stretched a serpent. We know
well that in these early sculptures none of these
figures were chance devices, but all represented
events or supposed events, and figures ... , thus it
is evident that a form of the story of the Fall, similar
to that of Genesis, was known from early times
in Babylonia.”

Akkadian “Temptation Seal”
From 2,300-2,200 B.C.


The first city mentioned in the Bible as being
among the cities of Nimrod is Babel. And in fact,
the city’s name, as well as the Tower of Babel account,
is recorded outside of the Bible.

Fragments of an Assyrian tablet were discovered
at Nineveh by Austen Henry Layard, during the
middle of the 18th century, that closely parallel the
Biblical Tower of Babel account. The artifacts now
reside in the British Museum (registration number
K.3657) and reads as follows: “his heart was evil
against the father of all the gods . . . Babylon was
brought into subjection, small and great alike. He
confounded their speech . . . their strong palace
(tower) all the days they built; to their
strong place in the night He completely made an
end . . . In His anger His word was poured out . . .
to scatter aboard He set his face, He gave this
command, and their counsel was confused . . .
He saw them and the earth. . . of stopping not . . .
Bitterly they wept at Babi.”

Sumer’s oldest and most important capital
city was Uruk (biblical 'Erech'). Present day Iraq
possibly derived its name from this ancient city.
Uruk is recorded on an artifact known as the
‘Sumerian Kings List’ which also mentions the
Elamites. These are the same Elamites who descended
from Elam, the son of Shem, the son of Noah, as
listed in Genesis 10:22.

Sumer’s capital was later moved from Erech
to UR, the same city which Abraham later left to
go to the land of Canaan. The Bible calls this city
"Ur of the Chaldeans" in Genesis 11:31. An Inscription
from Argistis near Van verifies this title. It
states, “This is the spoil of the cities I obtained for
the people of the Khaldis (Chaldeans) in one
year.”

One fascinating archeological find at Ur is
that of a temple tower which the Akkadians called a
ziggurat. This tower found at UR was later rebuilt
by king Nabonidus of Babylon, who reigned between
555-539 B.C."

Ziggurat ruins at Ur


On inscriptions found at this ziggurat,
Nabonidus states that he had rebuilt the structure,
which he learned was originally constructed by two
kings who lived 1,500 years prior to himself. One
inscription also bears the name of another Biblical
Babylonian prince by the name of Belshazzar, who
would live to see God’s handwriting on the walls of
Babylon as recorded in Daniel chapter 5.

The ziggurat, which resembled a four-sided
stepped pyramid, was probably similar to that of the
Biblical tower built at Babel. Other towers in Mesopotamia,
such as the one at Ur, have been found at
Calah (Nimrud), Assur, Akkad (Sippar), Uruk,
Cush (Kish), Borsippa, Aqarquf, Khorabad and
Eridu, a city near Ur.

Inscriptions from various Babylonian kings
also record the construction of these temple towers,
which they say reached to the sky, with similar
wording to that found in the Bible’s 'tower of Babel'
account.

Hammurabi, who ruled nearly 2,000 years
before Christ, states: “He restored the temple
Emeteursag ... and built the temple tower
...whose top is sky high.”

Much later in the sixth century B.C.,
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, wrote: “I raised
the summit of the Tower of stages at Etemenanki
so that its top rivaled the heavens.”

We also know from Babylonian inscriptions
that these towers reached heights of up to 300
feet."


Archaeology in this region has also uncovered
one of the earliest accounts of the flood. It is
listed on an artifact known as the 'Sumerian Kings
List,' dating back to 2,170 B.C. The inscription
reads: “The flood swept over (the earth). After
the flood had swept over (the earth) (and)
when the kingship was lowered (again) from
heaven, kingship was (first) at Kish (Cush).”

What is interesting about this statement is
not only that the flood is mentioned, but it also mentions a
city founded by Cush (who was "the son of Ham, the
son of Noah"). The Bible, in Genesis 10:8, states that
Nimrod descended from Cush. The city of Kish
(Cush) was located in the area very close to Babylon.

Another artifact from the Sumerians was
found at Nippur (biblical 'Calneh') which states: “A
flood came over the cities to destroy the seed
of all mankind . . . all the wind-storms,
exceedingly powerful attacked as one. At the
same time, the flood swept over the culture
centers. For seven days and seven nights, the
flood had swept over the land. The huge boat
had been tossed about by the windstorms on
the great waters.”


Another fascinating artifact was found at
Nineveh, which was one of the cities of Asshur mentioned in
Genesis 10:11. It gives an account of the flood,
somewhat similar to the Bible’s account, showing
they also had a knowledge of the great flood of
Noah’s day:

“...build a ship, seek thou life . . . aboard the
ship take thou the seed of all living things . . . All
my family and kin I made go aboard the ship. The
beasts of the field, the wild creatures of the field . . .
I made go aboard . . .”Board thou ship and batten
up thy entrance!” That stated time had arrived: He
who orders unease at night, showers down a rain of
blight. I watched the appearance of the weather.
The weather was awesome to behold. I boarded the
ship and battened up the entrance. With the first
glow of dawn, a black cloud rose up from the horizon.
. . . Consternation over Adad reaches the
heavens, Who turned to darkness all that had been
light . . . For one day the south storm gathered
speed as it blew, overtaking the [people] like a battle.
No one can see his fellow . . . Six days and six
nights blows the flood winds, as the south-storm
sweeps over the land . . . On the seventh day the
flood subsided in battle . . . the flood ceased.
I looked at the weather; stillness had set in. And all
of mankind had returned to clay. . . . On mount
Nisir the ship came to a halt. . . . When the seventh
day arrived, I set forth a dove. The dove went back
and forth, but came back; since no resting place for
it was visible. Then I sent forth a swallow. The
swallow went forth, but came back; since no resting
place for it was visible. Then I sent forth and
set free a raven. The raven went forth and, seeing
the waters diminished, he eats, circles, caws and
turns not around. Then I let out (all) to the four
winds and offered a sacrifice. I poured out a libation
on the top of the mountains.”

Tablet number 11 of the Gilgamesh
Epic, dated to the 7th century B.C.,
found at Nineveh, gives an account of
a flood, with some similarities to that
of the Bible.


Another of Nimrod’s cities was Calneh which,
according to the Talmud, is associated with the site
of Nippur. According to Genesis 11:1-9, Nimrod’s cities,
which included the region of Babel, Erech, Akkad
and Calneh, was known as the land of Shinar.
The name 'Shinar' is found in Egyptian records
from Pharaoh Amenhotep II, who wrote: “Now
when the prince of the land of Naharin, the Prince
of Hatti, and the prince of Shinar heard of my
great victory, . . . they asked me to spare their
lives.”

To the Northwest of Shinar lies the cities
founded by Asshur, who was a descendant of
Noah’s son, Shem. His first city was named after
himself: Assur. And just like the ruins from Akkad
and Sumer, a ziggurat has also been uncovered at
Assur.

Another one of his cities mentioned in Genesis
10:11 is Calah. The existence of this city has
been found on a royal inscription from Assurnasirpal
II, an early king of Assyria, who states “I
took over again the city of Calah.”

The Biblical city of Resen, mentioned in Genesis
10:12, is believed to be the city known as Larissa
(Al-Resen or 'City of Resen'). In Hebrew, 'Resen'
means “fortified place." The historian Xenophon
recorded that Larissa was a great fortress located
between the cities of Nineveh and Calneh.

The city Rehoboth Ir is associated today
with the Assyrian city of Khorsabad.
And of course, last but not least is the great
city of Nineveh, which later became the capital of
the Assyrian empire.

http://www.biblehistory.net/Flood_Tower_Babel.pdf